Relative clauses

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a noun. For example, the phrase "the man who wasn't there" contains the noun man, which is modified by the relative clause who wasn't there. A relative clause can also modify a pronoun, as in "he to whom I have written", or a noun phrase which already contains a modifier, as in "the black panther in the tree, which is about to pounce". The complete phrase (modified noun phrase plus modifying relative clause) is also a noun phrase. In many European languages, relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called relative pronouns; in the previous example, who is a relative pronoun. In other languages, relative clauses may be marked in different ways: they may be introduced by a special class of conjunctions called relativizers; the main verb of the relative clause may appear in a special morphological variant; or a relative clause may be indicated by word order alone. In some languages, more than one of these mechanisms may be possible. Types of relative clause A relative clause is always used to join together two sentences that share one of their arguments. For example, the sentence "The man that I saw yesterday went home" is equivalent to the following two sentences: "The man went home. I saw the man yesterday." In this case, "the man" occurs as argument to both sentences. Note that there is no requirement that the shared argument fulfills the same role in both of the joined sentences; indeed, in this example, "the man" is subject of the first, but direct object of the second. The two sentences joined in a relative-clause construction are known as the main clause or matrix clause (the outer clause) and the embedded clause or relative clause (the inner clause). The shared noun as it occurs in the main clause is termed the head noun. Languages differ in many ways in how relative clauses are expressed: 1. How the role of the shared noun phrase is indicated in the embedded clause. 2. How the two clauses are joined together. 3. Where the embedded clause is placed relative to the head noun (in the process indicating which noun phrase in the main clause is modified). For example, the English sentence "The man that I saw yesterday went home" can be described as follows: 1. The role of the shared noun in the embedded clause is indicated by gapping (i.e. in the embedded clause "that I saw yesterday", a gap is left after "saw" to indicate where the shared noun would go). 2. The clauses are joined by the complementizer "that". 3. The embedded clause is placed after the head noun "the man". The following sentences indicate various possibilities (only some of which are grammatical in English): • "The man [that I saw yesterday] went home". (A complementizer linking the two clauses with a gapping strategy indicating the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause. One possibility in English. Very common cross-linguistically.) • "The man [I saw yesterday] went home". (Gapping strategy, with no word joining the clauses—also known as a reduced relative clause. One possibility in English. Used in Arabic when the head noun is indefinite, as in "a man" instead of "the man".) • "The man [whom I saw yesterday] went home". (A relative pronoun indicating the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause — in this case, the direct object. Used in formal English, as in Latin, German or Russian.) • "The man [seen by me yesterday] went home". (A reduced relative clause, in this case passivized. One possibility in English.) • "The man [that I saw him yesterday] went home". (A complementizer linking the two sentences with a resumptive pronoun indicating the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause, as in Arabic, Hebrew or Persian.) • "The man [that him I saw yesterday] went home". (Similar to the previous, but with the resumptive pronoun fronted. This occurs in modern Greek and as one possibility in modern Hebrew; the combination that him of complementizer and resumptive pronoun behaves similar to a unitary relative pronoun.) • "The [I saw yesterday]'s man went home". (Preceding relative clause with gapping and use of a possessive particle — as normally used in a genitive construction — to link the relative clause to the head noun. This occurs in Chinese and certain other languages influenced by it.) • "The [I saw yesterday] man went home". (Preceding relative clause with gapping and no linking word, as in Japanese.) • "The man [of my seeing yesterday] went home". (Nominalized relative clause, as in Turkish.) • "[Which man I saw yesterday], that man went home". (A correlative structure, as in Hindi.) • "[I saw the man yesterday] went home." (An unreduced, internally-headed relative clause, as in Tibetan or Navajo.) Strategies for indicating the role of the shared noun in the relative clause There are four main strategies for indicating the role of the shared noun phrase in the embedded clause. These are typically listed in order of the degree to which the noun in the relative clause has been reduced, from most to least: 1. Gap strategy or gapped relative clause 2. Relative pronoun 3. Pronoun retention 4. Nonreduction Gapped relative clause In this strategy, there is simply a gap in the relative clause where the shared noun would go. This is normal in English, for example, and also in Chinese and Japanese. This is the most common type of relative clause, especially in verb-final languages with prenominal relative clauses, but is also widespread among languages with postnominal externally headed relative clauses. There may or may not be any marker used to join the relative and main clauses. (Note that languages with a case-marked relative pronoun are technically not considered to employ the gapping strategy even though they do in fact have a gap, since the case of the relative pronoun indicates the role of the shared noun.) Often the form of the verb is different from that in main clauses and is to some degree nominalized, as in Turkish and in English reduced relative clauses.[1][2] In non-verb-final languages, apart from languages like Thai and Vietnamese with very strong politeness distinctions in their grammars[citation needed], gapped relative clauses tend however to be restricted to positions high up in the accessibility hierarchy. With obliques and genitives, non-verb-final languages that do not have politeness restrictions on pronoun use tend to use pronoun retention. English is unusual in that all roles in the embedded clause can be indicated by gapping: e.g. "I saw the man who is my friend", but also (in progressively less accessible positions cross-linguistically, according to the accessibility hierarchy described below) "... who I know", "... who I gave a book to", "... who I spoke with", "... who I run slower than". Usually, languages with gapping disallow it beyond a certain level in the accessibility hierarchy, and switch to a different strategy at this point. Classical Arabic, for example, only allows gapping in the subject and sometimes the direct object; beyond that, a resumptive pronoun must be used. Some languages have no allowed strategies at all past a certain point — e.g. in many Austronesian languages, such as Tagalog, all relative clauses must have the shared noun serving the subject role in the embedded clause. In these languages, relative clauses with shared nouns serving "disallowed" roles can be expressed by passivizing the embedded sentence, thereby moving the noun in the embedded sentence into the subject position. This, for example, would transform "The man who I gave a book to" into "The man who was given a book by me". Generally, languages such as this "conspire" to implement general relativization by allowing passivization from all positions – hence a sentence equivalent to "The man who is run slower than by me" is grammatical. Note also that gapping is often used in conjunction with case-marked relative pronouns (since the relative pronoun indicates the case role in the embedded clause), but this is not necessary (e.g. Chinese and Japanese both using gapping in conjunction with an indeclinable complementizer). Relative pronoun type This is in fact a type of gapped relative clause, but is distinguished by the fact that the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause is indicated indirectly by the case marking of the marker (the relative pronoun) used to join the main and embedded clauses. All languages which use relative pronouns have them in clause-initial position: though one could conceivably imagine a clause-final relative pronoun analogous to an adverbial subordinator in that position, they are unknown. Note that some languages have what are described as "relative pronouns" (in that they agree with some properties of the head noun, such as number and gender) but which don't actually indicate the case role of the shared noun in the embedded clause. Classical Arabic in fact has "relative pronouns" which are case-marked, but which agree in case with the head noun. Case-marked relative pronouns in the strict sense are almost entirely confined to European languages[citation needed], where they are widespread except among the Celtic family and Indo-Aryan family. The influence of Spanish has led to their adaption by a very small number of Native American languages, of which the best-known are the Keresan languages.[3] Pronoun retention type In this type, the position relativized is indicated by means of a personal pronoun in the same syntactic position as would ordinarily be occupied by a noun phrase of that type in the main clause — known as a resumptive pronoun. It is equivalent to saying "The man who I saw him yesterday went home". Pronoun retention is very frequently used for relativization of inaccessible positions on the accessibility hierarchy. In Persian and Classical Arabic, for example, resumptive pronouns are required when the embedded role is other than the subject or direct object, and optional in the case of the direct object. Resumptive pronouns are common in non-verb-final languages of Africa and Asia, and also used by the Celtic languages of northwest Europe and Romanian ("Omul pe care l-am văzut ieri a mers acasă"/"The man who I saw him yesterday went home"). They also occur in deeply embedded positions in English, as in "That's the girl that I don't know what she did",[4] although this is sometimes considered non-standard. Only a very small number of languages, of which the best known is Yoruba, have pronoun retention as their sole grammatical type of relative clause. Nonreduction type In the nonreduction type, unlike the other three, the shared noun occurs as a full-fledged noun phrase in the embedded clause, which has the form of a full independent clause. Typically, it is the head noun in the main clause that is reduced or missing. Some languages use relative clauses of this type with the normal strategy of embedding the relative clause next to the head noun. These languages are said to have internally headed relative clauses, which would be similar to the (ungrammatical) English structure "[You see the girl over there] is my friend" or "I took [you see the girl over there] out on a date". This is used, for example, in Navajo, which uses a special relative verb (as with some other Native American languages). A second strategy is the correlative-clause strategy used by Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as Bambara. This strategy is equivalent to saying "Which girl you see over there, she is my daughter" or "Which knife I killed my friend with, the police found that knife". It is "correlative" because of the corresponding "which ... that ..." demonstratives or "which ... she/he/it ..." pronouns, which indicate the respective nouns being equated. Note that the shared noun can either be repeated entirely in the main clause or reduced to a pronoun. Note also that there is no need to front the shared noun in such a sentence. For example, in the second example above, Hindi would actually say something equivalent "I killed my friend with which knife, the police found that knife". Dialects of some European languages, such as Italian, do use the nonreduction type in forms that could be glossed in English as "The man just passed us by, he introduced me to the chancellor here." Similarly, spoken English tends to replace uses of the relative pronoun whose with non-reduced clauses. For example, consider the following sentence: The man whose daughter I know is arriving tomorrow. Informal English would tend to say instead This man, I know his daughter, (and) he's arriving tomorrow. In general, however, nonreduction is restricted to verb-final languages, though it is more common among those that are head-marking. Strategies for joining the relative clause to the main clause The following are some of the common strategies for joining the two clauses: • Use of an indeclinable particle (specifically, a complementizer) inserted into the sentence, placed next to the modified noun; the embedded clause is likewise inserted into the appropriate position, typically placed on the other side of the complementizer. This strategy is very common and arguably occurs in English with the word that ("the main that I saw"), though this interpretation of "that" as something other than a relative pronoun is controversial (see below). In the modern varieties of Arabic (using illi placed after the modified noun); in Chinese (using de placed before the modified noun); and in Japanese (using no placed before the modified noun). • Use of a relative pronoun. Prototypically, a relative pronoun agrees with the head noun in gender, number, definiteness, animacy, etc., but adopts the case that the shared noun assumes in the embedded, not matrix, clause. This is the case in a number of conservative European languages, such as Latin, German and Russian. Many languages also have similar linking words common termed "relative pronouns" that agree in some way with the head noun, but do not adopt the case role of the embedded clause. In English, for example, the use of who vs. which agrees with the animacy of the head noun, but there is no case agreement except in the formal English contrast who vs. whom (which is often used incorrectly, if at all, in speech). Similarly, in Classical Arabic, there is a relative pronoun that agrees in number, gender, definiteness and case with the head noun (rather than taking the case role of the noun in the embedded clause). Languages with prototypical relative pronouns typically use the gapping strategy for indicating the role in the embedded clause, since the relative pronoun itself indicates the role by its case. (Classical Arabic, where the case marking indicates something else, uses a resumptive pronoun.) Some linguists prefer to use the term relative pronoun only for the prototypical cases (but in this case it's unclear what to call the non-prototypical cases). • Directly inserting the embedded clause in the matrix clause at the appropriate position, with no word used to join them. This is common, for example, in English (cf. "The man I saw yesterday went home"), and is used in Classical Arabic in relative clauses that modify indefinite nouns. • By nominalizing the relative clause (e.g. converting it to a participial construction). Generally, no relative pronoun or complementizer is used. This occurs, for example, in reduced relative clauses in English (e.g. "The man seen by me yesterday went home" or "The man planning to go home soon is my friend"). Formal German makes common use of such participial relative clauses, which can become extremely long. This is also the normal strategy in Turkish, which has sentences equivalent to "I ate the potato of Hasan's giving to Sina" (in place of "I ate the potato that Hasan gave to Sina"). Note that this can be viewed as a situation in which the "complementizer" is attached to the verb of the embedded clause (e.g. in English, "-ing" or "-ed" can be viewed as a type of complementizer). Position of the head noun with respect to the relative clause The positioning of a relative clause before or after a head noun is related to the more general concept of branching in linguistics. Languages that place relative clauses after their head noun (so-called head-initial or VO languages) generally also have adjectives and genitive modifiers following the head noun, as well as verbs preceding their objects. French, Spanish and Arabic are prototypical languages of this sort. Languages that place relative clauses before their head noun (so-called head-final or OV languages) generally also have adjectives and genitive modifiers preceding the head noun, as well as verbs following their objects. Turkish and Japanese are prototypical languages of this sort. Not all languages fit so easily into these categories. English, for example, is generally head-first, but has adjectives preceding their head nouns, and genitive constructions with both preceding and following modifiers ("the friend of my father" vs. "my father's friend"). Chinese has the VO order, with verb preceding object, but otherwise is generally head-final. Various possibilities for ordering are: • Relative clause following the head noun, as in English, French or Arabic. • Relative clause preceding the head noun, as in Turkish, Japanese, or Chinese. • Head noun within the relative clause (an internally-headed relative clause). An example of such a language is Navajo. These languages are said to have nonreduced relative clauses. These languages have a structure equivalent to "[I saw the man yesterday] went home". • Adjoined relative clause. These languages have the relative clause completely outside the main clause, and use a correlative structure to link the two. These languages also have nonreduced relative clauses. Hindi is the most well known such language, and have a structure similar to "Which man I saw yesterday, that man went home" or (with non-fronting of the relativized noun in the relative clause) "I saw which man yesterday, that man went home". Another example is Warlpiri, which constructs relative clauses of a form similar to "I saw the man yesterday, which he was going home". However, it is sometimes said these languages have no relative clauses at all, since the sentences of this form can equally well translate as "I saw the man who was going home yesterday" or "I saw the man yesterday when/while he was going home".

Passive Voice simple present

Exercises on Passive Use of Passive Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. Example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: Example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.). Form of Passive Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Example: A letter was written. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: • the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence • the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) • the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) Examples of Passive Tense Subject Verb Object Simple Present Active: Rita writes a letter. Passive: A letter is written by Rita. Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter. Passive: A letter was written by Rita. Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter. Passive: A letter has been written by Rita. Future I Active: Rita will write a letter. Passive: A letter will be written by Rita. Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter. Passive: A letter can be written by Rita. Examples of Passive Tense Subject Verb Object Present Progressive Active: Rita is writing a letter. Passive: A letter is being written by Rita. Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter. Passive: A letter was being written by Rita. Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter. Passive: A letter had been written by Rita. Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter. Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita. Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter. Passive: A letter would be written by Rita. Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter. Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita. Passive Sentences with Two Objects Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2 Active: Rita wrote a letter to me. Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita. Passive: I was written a letter by Rita. . As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped. Personal and Impersonal Passive Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. Example: They build houses. – Houses are built. Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. Example: he says – it is said Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know). Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men. Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common. Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men. The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped). Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence. Bentuk pasif Kindergartenenglisch 2 Thema: Haustiere, Zahlen 1-5, Präpositionen Latihan pada Pasif Penggunaan Pasif Pasif digunakan ketika fokusnya adalah pada tindakan. Hal ini tidak penting atau tidak dikenal, namun, siapa atau apa yang melakukan tindakan. Contoh: sepeda saya dicuri. Dalam contoh di atas, fokusnya adalah pada kenyataan bahwa sepeda saya dicuri. Saya tidak tahu, bagaimanapun, siapa yang melakukannya. Kadang-kadang pernyataan di pasif lebih sopan daripada suara aktif, seperti contoh berikut ini menunjukkan: Contoh: Sebuah kesalahan dibuat. Dalam hal ini, saya fokus pada fakta bahwa kesalahan itu dibuat, tapi saya tidak menyalahkan siapa pun (misalnya Anda telah melakukan kesalahan.). Bentuk Pasif Subject + bentuk terbatas menjadi + past participle (kolom ke-3 kata kerja tidak teratur ) Contoh: Suatu surat yang ditulis. Ketika menulis ulang kalimat aktif dalam suara pasif, perhatikan hal berikut: • obyek kalimat aktif menjadi subjek kalimat pasif • bentuk terbatas dari kata kerja berubah (menjadi + past participle) • subjek kalimat aktif menjadi objek kalimat pasif (atau dijatuhkan) Contoh Pasif Level: tingkat pemula Tegang Subyek Kata kerja Obyek Sederhana Hadir Aktif: Rita menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A ditulis oleh Rita. Sederhana lalu Aktif: Rita menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A ditulis oleh Rita. Hadir Sempurna Aktif: Rita telah menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A telah ditulis oleh Rita. Masa Depan Saya Aktif: Rita akan menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A akan ditulis oleh Rita. Hilfsverben Aktif: Rita dapat menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A dapat ditulis oleh Rita. Contoh Pasif Level: menengah atas Tegang Subyek Kata kerja Obyek Hadir Progresif Aktif: Rita yang menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A sedang ditulis oleh Rita. Lalu Progresif Aktif: Rita sedang menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A sedang ditulis oleh Rita. Telah Sempurna Aktif: Rita telah menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A telah ditulis oleh Rita. Masa Depan II Aktif: Rita akan ditulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A akan ditulis oleh Rita. Bersyarat Saya Aktif: Rita akan menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A akan ditulis oleh Rita. Bersyarat II Aktif: Rita akan menulis surat. Pasif: Huruf A akan pernah ditulis oleh Rita. Kalimat pasif dengan Dua Objek Level: intermediate Menulis ulang sebuah kalimat aktif dengan dua objek dalam kalimat pasif berarti bahwa satu dari dua benda menjadi subjek, yang lain tetap obyek. Yang objek untuk berubah menjadi subjek tergantung pada apa yang Anda ingin menempatkan fokus pada. Subyek Kata kerja Obyek 1 Obyek 2 Aktif: Rita menulis surat bagi saya. Pasif: Huruf A ditulis bagi saya oleh Rita. Pasif: Saya ditulis surat oleh Rita. . Seperti yang Anda lihat pada contoh, menambahkan oleh Rita tidak terdengar sangat elegan. Itu sebabnya biasanya dijatuhkan. Pribadi dan impersonal Pasif Pasif pribadi hanya berarti bahwa objek kalimat aktif menjadi subjek kalimat pasif. Jadi setiap kata kerja yang membutuhkan obyek (kata kerja transitif) dapat membentuk pasif pribadi. Contoh: Mereka membangun rumah. - Rumah dibangun. Kata kerja tanpa obyek (kata kerja intransitif) biasanya tidak dapat membentuk kalimat pasif pribadi (karena tidak ada objek yang dapat menjadi subjek kalimat pasif). Jika Anda ingin menggunakan kata kerja intransitif dalam suara pasif, Anda memerlukan konstruksi impersonal - karena itu pasif ini disebut pasif impersonal. Contoh: katanya - dikatakan Pasif impersonal tidak begitu umum dalam bahasa Inggris seperti di beberapa bahasa lain (misalnya Jerman, Latin). Dalam bahasa Inggris, Pasif impersonal hanya mungkin dengan verba persepsi (misalnya katakan, pikirkan, tahu). Contoh: Mereka mengatakan bahwa wanita hidup lebih lama daripada pria. - Dikatakan bahwa wanita hidup lebih lama daripada pria. Meskipun Pasif impersonal adalah mungkin di sini, Pasif pribadi adalah lebih umum. Contoh: Mereka mengatakan bahwa wanita hidup lebih lama daripada pria. - Perempuan dikatakan hidup lebih lama daripada pria. Subjek klausa bawahan (perempuan) pergi ke awal kalimat, kata kerja persepsi yang dimasukkan ke dalam kalimat pasif. Bagian kalimat tersebut akan ditambahkan menggunakan konstruksi infinitif dengan 'menjadi' (kata kerja bantu tertentu dan yang menjatuhkan). Kadang-kadang Pasif Pribadi istilah digunakan dalam pelajaran bahasa Inggris jika objek tidak langsung dari kalimat aktif menjadi subjek kalimat pasif.

Comparison (grammar)

Comparison, in grammar, is a property of adjectives and adverbs in most languages; it describes systems that distinguish the degree to which the modifier modifies its complement.

English, due to the complex etymology of its lexicon, has two parallel systems of comparison. One involves the suffixes -er (the "comparative") and -est (the "superlative"). These inflections are of Germanic origin, and are cognate with the Latin suffixes -ior and -issimus. They are typically added to shorter words, words of Anglo-Saxon origin, and borrowed words that have been fully assimilated into the English vocabulary. Usually the words that take these inflections have fewer than three syllables. This system contains a number of irregular forms, some of which, like good, better, best, contain suppletive forms. These irregular forms include:
Positive Comparative Superlative
good better best
well better best
bad worse worst
far farther farthest
far further furthest
little smaller, less(er) smallest, least
many, much more most

more and most

The second system of comparison in English appends the grammatical particles more and most, themselves the irregular comparatives of many, to the adjective or adverb being modified. This series can be compared to a system containing the diminutives less and least.

This system is most commonly used with words of French or Latin derivation; adjectives and adverbs formed with suffixes other than -ly (e.g. beautiful); and with longer, technical, or infrequently used words. Knowing which words fall into which system is a highly idiomatic issue in English syntax. Some words require the suffixing system: e.g. taller is required; *more tall is not idiomatic English.

Some words (e.g. difficult) require more and most. Some words (e.g. polite) can be used with either system; curiously, while polite can go either way, the derived word impolite requires more and most.

The general rule is that words with one syllable require the suffix, words with three or more syllables require more or most and words with two syllables can go either way.
[edit] Absolute adjectives

A perennial issue in English usage involves the comparison of so-called "absolute" adjectives, adjectives that logically do not seem to admit of comparison. There are many such adjectives — generally adjectives that name qualities that are either present or absent: nothing is *"more Cretaceous" or *"more igneous" than anything else.

Other examples include perfect, unique, and parallel, which name qualities that are inherently superlative: if something is perfect, there can be nothing better, so it does not make sense to describe one thing as *"more perfect" than something else; if something is unique, it is one of a kind, so something cannot be *"very unique", or *"more unique" than something else. See also tautology (rhetoric) and pleonasm.

In general, terms like perfect and parallel cannot ever apply exactly to things in real life, so they are commonly used to mean nearly perfect, nearly parallel, and so on; and in this (inexact) use, more perfect (i.e., more nearly perfect, closer to perfect) and more parallel (i.e., more nearly parallel, closer to parallel) do seem to make sense.

Relative clause

Definition

A relative clause is a part of a sentence beginning with a relative pronoun (although this pronoun can be omitted in certain cases). For example:

The company where I worked is called International Enterprises Plc.
The man who went into the baker's bought a loaf of bread.
My sister, who lives near London, is coming to visit me soon.

Basic relative pronouns

The relative pronoun you use depends on the thing you're talking about. Generally speaking, the most basic ones are these:
for people

who/that
for things

which/that
for places

where
for reasons

why
for times

when

Who, which and that cannot be used indiscriminately. That can only be used in defining relative clauses.

Trickier relative pronouns

Four relative pronouns often seem to confuse people, but they're easy to use too.

WHICH

This can be used to refer to the whole part of the sentence that went before. Usually a pronoun refers to a noun, but this refers to more. For example:

I've broken my leg, which means I can't walk.
I've still got some money left, which is surprising.

WHOM

This is hardly ever used in spoken English, and not often in written English. It sounds very formal to most people. If you're going to use it at all, then only use it after prepositions. Even so, there's usually another less formal way to say the same thing. For example:

The woman to whom he was talking is his sister.
The woman that he was talking to is his sister.

WHOSE

This is used to show possession. It means basically 'of who(m)'. It can always be used for people and animals, but also for things, though this sometimes sounds strange and it might be better to change the structure of the sentence unless the thing is made up of people (a team, a city, an organisation). For example:

My students, whose homework is never done, will fail the exam.
The homework belongs to the students, it's theirs, so possessive.

That dog whose bone you took is going to bite your leg off.
It is - or was - the dog's bone.

The city, whose football team lost the final, never wins anything.
The city's made up of people, so it sounds OK.

WHAT

This can be literally translated to mean 'the thing that' or 'that which'. It is not used anywhere near as often as 'which' or 'that' and is not used in the same way. For example:

A man's gotta do what a man's gotta do.
I didn't know what he was going to do next.

Non-defining relative clauses

These are the ones that give extra information. They are always written between commas. If you leave out the relative clause between the commas it still makes sense. For example:

Valencia, which is Spain's third largest city, is on the Mediterranean coast.
We all know Valencia, so this is extra information not needed for understanding.

My parents, who are retired, come to Spain every year.
I've only got one set of parents.

I used to live in London, where I was born and went to school.

Defining relative clauses

These are the ones that give you the information you need to understand the sentence. There are no commas. If you take the relative clause away, the sentence doesn't make sense. For example:

The team that wins will receive a cup and 1,000 €.
What team?

The man who lives next door is always making a noise.
What man?

Has he told you what he's going to do?
Has he told me what?

Subject and object relative pronouns

The use of who/which/that may depend on whether the pronoun is the subject or the object of the sentence. For example:

The man who spoke to me told me the story of his life.
He spoke to me, so 'who' is the subject and 'me' is the object.

The man that I spoke to told me the story of his life.
I spoke to him, so 'I' is the subject and 'that' is the object.

When the pronoun is the object it can be left out:

The man I spoke to told me the story of his life.

Synopsis Of The Book

Titles of books: Twilight
Figures: Isabella Swan (Kristen Stewart)
Edward Cullen (Robert Pattison)
Carlisle Cullen (Peter Facinelli)
Evenson Esme (Elizabeth Reaser)
Rosalie Hale (Nikki Reed)
Alice Cullen (Ashley Greene)
Jasper Cullen (Jackson Rathbone)
Charlie Swan (Billy Burke)
Author name: Meyer Stephennie
Year of publication: October 5, 2005
Name of publisher: Little, Brown
Place of publication: United States

"About three things that I believe is the truth, the first Edward is a vampire. second, there is a part of him - which I do not know how dominant that part - thirsty for my blood and the third one I fell in love with her very deep and unconditional "
Bella Swan, beautiful girls who have problems in self-confidence and coordination of his own body, recently moved from Phoenix, Arizona that the majority of heat bercuaca to Forks, Washington which the majority of the rainy weather to stay with her father, Charlie, after her mother, Renée, married and lived with her new husband, Phil, a baseball player. After moving to Forks, Bella meets the Cullen keluaga foster child. Emmet, Rossalie, Jasper, Alice and Edward. although they have no blood ties, but they are very similar. four brothers with good looks and remarkable beauty, pale-skinned, has an unmatched elegance and mystique.
In biology class, Bella has no choice but to sit down with Edward Edward Cullen.respon extremely unfriendly, making Bella felt when Edward hated. other than that on the first day, Edward always keep a distance with her, holding her breath and always looked at Bella with a strange look. like something unpleasant smell from Bella herself. After disappearing for a week that Edward and Bella make more sense that he hated her for no apparent reason.
Edward re-emerged in the classroom biologi.Bagai have multiple personalities, he was so friendly and polite to Bella when itu.gadis it realizes there is a change in self-Edward, the color of his eyes. The first time she saw Edward, the handsome man had dark black eye color, and now the color of her eyes and glowed like molten gold.
One morning, when it snows, Bella almost wretched because one of his van - Tyler - almost ran over the girl's body, if Edward did not immediately help. before he saw Edward standing right next to his car and watched him from a considerable distance. but suddenly when the incident occurred, Edward has helped in a very rapid movement, and that makes Bella's surprise, the van that almost hit it too contained a mysterious indentation, as if the van had hit something very hard (Edward's shoulder). lengkukan strange and very fitting on Edward's shoulder. Bella is very confused and believe that there is something about Edward that indicates that maybe he was not human biasa.seperti a hero - superhero - is possible according to his theory, or even exposed to radioactive kryptonite. Bella is always curious to ask about it to Edward, but Edward did not want to explain it and come back to be rude and increasingly distant with Bella.
After a silence during beberepa day Bella, Edward returned to be nice and polite. He apologized and told Bella that they should not have friends, because he was not a good person and bella deny it. Bella believes that Edward behave rude to him not because he was evil but because he was hiding something - like Edward wearing a mask -. Edward invites Bella to go with him and other friends to go to the beach Quilute tribal reservations, first beach, La Push, but Edward politely refused on the grounds that it was too crowded.
At First Beach, Bella meets Jacob Black. which is a little friend that one year a few months younger, but Bella had forgotten. Lauren, one of Bella's friends are not very fond of him began provoked about 'why not invite Bella Edward Cullen'. It was fishing one friend Jacob Black touched on "The Cullens do not come here - the Quileute tribe reservation - this attractive .Hal Bella.Gadis suspicion was cleverly trying mangajak Jacob streets alone with Jacob and then seduced to want to explain the purpose of his speech tadi.karena Jacob considers his tribe is a story about a silly fantasy and Bella had promised not to divulge to anyone, so he told about the legend of his tribe. Quileute tribe is descended from wolves and have only one enemy that is vampir.Menurut their belief it is closely related to the Cullen family where the Cullen family are vampires who make a covenant with his grandfather Jacob - Ephraim Black - to never set foot into the area his tribe.
At home, Bella looking for information about the Vampire because he too has not fully believe it, but he only found a match with what is told Jacob. until the scare stories that haunt his dreams. He also saw Edward sparkling, has fangs and the eyes are calling him dangerous. but Bella was not afraid and that's when Jacob appeared. jacob suddenly turned into a very large brown wolf and Edward pounce. Upon awakening from the nightmare, Bella realized that she could not lose Edward. and Edward was not anything actually important to him. the next day, the morning is bright for forks. the sun shone bright and without clouds, and the Cullen family disappeared. That's when Bella waited in the school garden, but Angela had told him that every sunny weather, the Cullen family will not show up because they - the whole Cullen family - go Hiking.
Bella had long wanted to buy some books. Incidentally Angela and Jessica wanted to go to Port Angels, he also participated. First she accompanied Angela and Jessica into a clothes shop - Angela asked him to give input on what they would buy - and then after selecting clothes, shoes and other trinkets, Bella broke away from them to go to the bookstore. But the book store was not what he expected - too mysterious and impossible to sell a book he was looking for - so he went from store to store looking for another book. Instead of finding that he was looking for, instead he got lost and had come to harm. He was disturbed by some thugs who are drunk. They set him up to the place where he could escape again ttidak. When Bella was stuck thinking about what strategies can help him - such as kicking or meniju collarbone because the faces of the thugs was sure he wanted to run down while screaming he could not make a sound because the lump in his throat -. That's when Edward suddenly come up with Volvo silvernya, speeding and suddenly stopped in front of the thugs that. Penumpangnmya door opened and Edward told Bella Bella to save Edward masuk.Demikianlah again. Bella looked at Edward's face that looked very frantic berbahayadan threatening, but Edward asks Bella to distract him. Bella mentions he would kill Tyler by Tyler crashed his car into the van because he was always bothered Bella Bella due to her guilt crashed the other day. It also managed to divert attention back to the store Edward.Mereka Angels Port Edward after Edward's mood somewhat restrained and met two friends Bella. Since Jessica and Angela had finished dining restaurant, Edward was asked for permission to them to ask Bella to dinner because he was worried about Bella. At the restaurant, the waiters will be amazed Edward's good looks and began courting her. Edward was not mengidahkan servant, her eyes fixed on Bella saja.Ia only request a seat that is privacy. When ordering food, ordering two Edward Coke - both of which were presented to Bella as well -, Bella was ordered mashroom Raviolli and eat them all asking for an explanation that goes against Edward Alak about surprising things he always did to save Bella's life. With the urging Bella, Edward tells Bella how to discover is by reading your mind and follow aromanya.Ia also claim that he can no longer stay away from Bella because he felt no longer able to pretend in front of Bella. He also describes how the talents in Bella Bella and asked to tell what's on his mind - Edward can not read Bella's mind -. In return he asks Bella to tell a new theory about him and Bella in ketahuinya say what about the legend of the Quileute tribe Jacob and Jacob told him everything. Edward stiffened and forced to admit the truth of the story itu.Edward is a vampire, his family is a family of vampires.
"I was the best predators around the world. Everything about me pull dirimu.suaraku, my face, even aromaku. As if I need all of it! As you can run faster than I have! As you can against it" (Edward Cullen )
Bella Swan, an ordinary teenage girl who moved to the town of Forks, a small town a grim, meets Edward Cullen, a mysterious guy who is very charming. The figure perfectly capable of making Bella terpikat.Ternyata, behind the perfection, Edward kept a big secret about the identity dirinya.Bella not realize the danger that awaits him Can he turn away from Edward before it is too late and change his life?
Stephenie Meyer managed to make the readers captivated by the perfect figure Edward.Bahkan when Bella dilemma faced by large, the authors are able to make the reader to feel the inner conflict felt Bella. Unfortunately, this book cover illustration reflects less the book. In addition, the lack of this book is it's too forward feelings of Bella, so the story is a bit too melancholy and lilting.
The first impression upon receiving the book is thick, it feels a bit terrifying novel gets this thick. When I first saw this book sealed in a bookstore, the first thought upon seeing kovernya is the thought of fantasy novels. In the end, after a sequel appeared, I began to hear people talking about this book as a good book. Obviously the more curious. Three quarters of this book contains a story of love and stories about how bad the main character of the vampire who disukain Approximately towards the end of the book, then came conflicts raise enough tension.

How To Write Business Leter

Use block style - do not indent paragraphs.
Include address of the person you are writing to at the top of the letter, below your company address.
After the address, double space and include date
Double space (or as much as you need to put the body of the letter in the center) and include the salutation. Include Mr. for men or Ms for women, unless the recipient has a title such as Dr.
State a reference reason for your letter (i.e. 'With reference to our telephone conversation...'
Give the reason for writing (i.e. 'I am writing to you to confirm our order...')
Make any request you may have (i.e. 'I would be grateful if you could include a brochure...'
If there is to be further contact, refer to this contact (i.e. 'I look forward to meeting you at...')
Close the letter with a thank you (i.e. 'Thank you for your prompt help...')
Finish the letter with a salutation (i.e. 'Yours sincerely,')
Include 4 spaces and type your full name and title
sign the letter between the salutation and the typed name and title

Tips:

Keep the letter brief and to the point
Do not use shortened verb forms - write them out (i.e. 'don't instead of do not')
Always keep a copy of correspondence for future reference

REFERENCES : http://esl.about.com/cs/englishworkplace/ht/ht_bletter.htm

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